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Equity Drives Essential Schools' Push for Adolescent Literacy
Sidebars:
A Student Looks Back on His Reading Life
Academic Literacy: Awareness, Skills, Content
Helping Students Learn How Good Readers Approach a Text
The Arts As a Natural Partner to Literacy
Reciprocal Teaching: Helping Students Understand What They Read
Literacy Evolves in a Community of Practice
Useful Readings and Resources on Adolescent Literacy
Much of the "quiet crisis" in adolescent literacy has to do with empowering students to use language critically– seeing it not as a barrier but an entry into a world they can question and shape.
As jason sat Through his seventh-grade classes in those days–the room crowded to bursting with New York City students like himself–he learned to tune out the labored, halting drone of "group reading" exercises. Para-graph by paragraph, a text would make the rounds of the room, and Jason knew that once his turn had passed the piece would not hit him again. Staring out the window or talking to a friend, he would wait for a quieter hour when he could go at his own pace, read what he wanted, think his own thoughts about it.
Last year, Jason's account of that in his "reading autobiography" at Fannie Lou Hamer Freedom High School in the Bronx brought the school's teacher-director, Nancy Mann, up short. (See sidebar, page 2.)
"I had always asked myself how Jason was going to graduate," Mann said. "He would sit in the classroom and talk to his neighbor!" But his reflection shed new light, she said, on Jason's puzzling ability to have good conferences with his teacher about the work.
"He got the message early that class is a lot of waiting that didn't really matter," Mann said. "But then he would go home and work through his reading. And he carried that pattern on into high school. He had developed an intellectual technique."
Jason is now a first-year student at City College in New York, but millions of adolescent students around the country are still confounding their teachers with classroom performance that makes it look like literacy is losing ground fast.
Most adolescents are able to carry out basic reading tasks, but only 40 percent can read well enough to comfortably manage standard high school texts, according to the U.S. government's 1998 National Assessment of Education-al Progress (NAEP). And their problems usually have to do less with simply reading the words than with comprehending ideas and content.
But like Nancy Mann, many Essential school teachers–whose Common Principles call for developing thoughtful habits of mind in active, inquiry-based classrooms–are starting to crack the conundrum of adolescent literacy by looking closely at why individual students are having trouble.
And as they prise out some answers, an increasing number have come to see the "quiet crisis" of adolescent literacy as an issue of not just instruction but equity, not just textbook techniques but social and academic empowerment.
In an era where print is losing ground to visual images, they are finding, students must discover their own need and desire for reading and writing as a vital prerequisite to competence in those areas.
And as students from more diverse backgrounds fill the nation's classrooms, they need more than mere instruction in the dominant culture's texts.
They also require the intellectual training to take any text–whatever its genre or medium–and identify its place and meaning in their own lives. Just as important, they need the chance to generate new knowledge and understanding, through producing new work of their own.
Apprentices in Reading
For Christine Cziko, an English teacher at Thurgood Marshall Academic High School in San Fran-cisco, that realization presented an opportunity for action. She partnered with fellow teacher Lori Hur-witz and researchers at WestEd's Strategic Literacy Initiative to develop a year-long ninth-grade "academic literacy" course, aimed at helping their ethnically diverse students become active, interested readers. (See sidebar)
Students start the year by exploring how reading can transform lives–partly by reading the accounts of writers like Frederick Douglass or Maxine Hong King-ston, and partly by thinking about the links between reading and their own life goals. In class, they do sustained silent reading of books they choose, amounting to 200 pages a month. They keep reading logs, write letters to the teacher about their reading, and design projects about their books.
Soon, the class begins approaching a variety of mainly non-literary texts–from CD liner notes to tax forms, cereal boxes to web pages. "Apprentices" to their teacher as "master reader," students learn to analyze what they do and do not understand, and why. Along the way they realize that all readers struggle with some materials–and they begin to think of themselves, too, as readers and writers who can actively engage a text.
By the second semester, these apprentice readers have gained practice in a number of "invisible" moves that experienced readers use without thinking–everything from using signals in the text to breaking up complex sentences into manageable chunks. (See sidebar, page 4, for a sample exercise.)
Students also can see the difference it makes to know the distinct vocabulary, writing styles, and concepts that go with different disciplines. They then put their new skills to use in tackling the texts of history, science, or other subjects.
At the end of the first year's course, these Thurgood Marshall ninth graders had jumped from an average reading level of late seventh grade to an average late-ninth-grade level–across all ethnic groups and in all four classrooms. And their positive attitudes and progress continued; by the end of the following year, they had gained another two years of proficiency on the Degrees of Reading Power assessment.
Equity as Driving Force
At the Bay Area CES Center, Tony Smith also partnered with the Strategic Literacy Initiative to support a network of 38 teachers in seven Essential secondary schools who would put equity at the center of their drive to increase literacy. By adapting the SLI approach to the needs of that professional learning community, "we have seen some students gain as much as four to six years of reading power in the course of a year," he said.
Teacher Peggy Raun-Linde at Sunnyvale's Fremont High School, where 1,700 students speak some 50 native languages among them, focuses her academic literacy course on building community in the classroom. "She uses literacy to open up the conversation about kids taking care of each other," Smith said, "and to talk about how some students have been kept out of the mainstream."
In north Philadelphia, fifteen girls at Simon Gratz High School meet weekly as Sisters Together in Action Research (Star) to research, analyze, and discuss issues in their own lives. Reading and writing together is their primary strategy: in a book club, for example, they explored the stresses of puberty for urban girls of color by reading Omar Tyree's novel Flyy Girl. Mentored by researchers from the Philadelphia group Research for Action, the young women also work with almost 100 students from the middle and elementary schools nearby, providing leadership, solidarity, and support for younger girls facing academic or social challenges.
Literacy Is Social, Too
In fact, literacy is both a social and a cognitive process, most researchers in the field now agree, and adolescents are uniquely positioned either to embrace or reject it.
If they have not already spent years with the mysteries and pleasures of printed English, students arrive in secondary school with little experience and less confidence in tackling demanding reading and writing. Especially vulnerable to humiliation at this age, they need personal and respectful attention to improving comprehension skills.
One powerful entry point to such learning, many teachers find, comes from the insights into the human experience that reading and writing provide. At New Mission High School in Boston, teacher Connie Borab urges her students to chew over the quandaries characters face in Alice Walker's book The Color Purple, finding links to their own lives before launching into an analytical paper. "Is it okay to assume something?" one girl asks in class. "Like the way Shug sleeps around might be from some abuse that could have happened to her before." Borab uses the query to get her class talking about how to draw inferences from evidence in a text.
As they grow more involved in questions that matter to them, students gain in their literacy skills, research shows. Student writing improved in high school social studies classes when teachers posed more compelling discussion questions and gave students more choice in what to write about, University of Wisconsin researchers Martin Nystrand, Adam Gamoran, and William Carbonaro have concluded.
Lack of context also can inhibit students' comprehension, as John Butler found when he tried to interest his African-American male students at Chicago's Sullivan High School in reading the Gettyburg Address for a Socratic seminar. "It wasn't just problems of words, phrasing, and style," he said. "It was a cultural stance they were not able to take." As an entry point, Butler instead started a discussion about racial profiling, introducing the abolitionist writings of Freder-ick Douglass. Students' interest grew, and they ended up writing their own Fourth of July speeches–and learning more about Lincoln's address in the process.
What Counts as ‘Text'?
Many students approach non-print media with far more confidence than they do print, as Nina LaNegra discovered in her after-school media literacy class at Boston's Mission Hill School. Her students wrote and produced a radio play titled "Teens on the Verge of Struggle," which dealt realistically with a variety of family and social issues, including drug use, alcoholism, and teen-age sex and pregnancy.
Defining literacy as the ability to "access, analyze, evaluate, and communicate messages in a variety of forms" opens up a rich world of text that includes film, television, folklore, art, photography, and other products for student inquiry, asserts Renee Hobbs, a Babson College professor who has written extensively on the subject.
The same skills involved in studying a movie like Apocalypse Now, Hobbs notes, can be used to tackle Joseph Conrad's novel Heart of Darkness and T. S. Eliot's poem The Wasteland, as one Houston high school class did.
Sullivan High School art teacher Cass Hale-Daoud drew struggling readers into a Socratic seminar by introducing artworks depicting the Prodigal Son before asking students to read the text of that Biblical parable. "I could see one girl sticking with that reading because she wanted to after seeing the art," said a colleague, Eileen Barton.
In Central Falls, Rhode Island, thirty students with little or no English presented a multimedia performance called "Postcards from America," exhibiting their own photographs of the immigrant experience along with their writing, music, and theatrical performances. Working with the Arts/Literacy Project at Brown University, the students were coached by a local newspaper photographer and a theater director as they found a new voice, a new vocabulary, and a strong sense of community both inside and outside the classroom.
Everyone Teaches Literacy
As more Essential school teachers at the secondary level grapple with literacy issues in their content-area classes, their need for new ways to help students grows ever more urgent. In Broward County, Florida, a project called Secondary Tech-niques Accelerate Reading (Star) brings teachers from different academic areas together with at-risk students to try out an approach that centers on a mix of "student-owned" strategies.
"We go for depth, not breadth," said Sharon Kossack, a Florida International University professor who later linked Star with a national program called Creating Independence through Student-owned Strategies (Criss) that stresses reading, writing, and learning strategies across the content areas.
Working in an unfamiliar content area, the teachers try out each strategy as if they were students themselves. Then they transfer it to their own subject and come up with a lesson to try with a student. "We do a lot of modeling," Kossack said, "a lot of processing what works and why."
After ten weeks, teachers are seeing major improvement in students' Degrees of Reading Power scores. "As a content teacher for many years, I used to think that if a child is not reading by age ten you have lost him," Kossack said. "We found that is absolutely not true."
As teachers learn more about their own styles of approaching unfamiliar texts, she said, they add to the techniques they can draw on when students have trouble. "They are learning about themselves," Kossack noted. "If a kid doesn't get it the way they are pitching it, teachers may need to use other channels than the ones they are most comfortable with."
In Class, But One on One
For the faculty at Fannie Lou Hamer, a cross-curricular push for literacy was "on the table from the first year the school opened," says Lorraine Chanon, who as literacy coordinator there has worked every possible angle to give each student the adult coaching she believes is key.
"At first we would pull out the students who needed help," she said. "But this year we realized it worked better to ‘push in' by coming into classes for extra support." Spanish is the predominant native language among Hamer students, so the school used some of its ESL teacher's time for that coaching, and also hired another Spanish teacher to work specifically on native language literacy.
All Hamer's teachers introduced their students to a new strategy for reading comprehension in the content areas.
("Buy-in from the kids was the key step," Chanon noted.)
A reading specialist comes in monthly to model the approach directly with selected struggling students, while teachers observe.
"It's totally Coalition," Chanon said of Hamer's schoolwide commitment to literacy. All students present a portfolio in the language arts to a juried committee before they may move on from tenth grade, and reflect on their progress again in a graduation portfolio. Working on literacy skillls in content-area classes, she says, also "gives kids a reason to wrestle with comprehending a difficult text."
As they do, students slowly acquire the active, inquiring habits that she hopes will stay with them long after graduation. One day this year, Chanon watched after school as a student named Latitia struggled through a passage from the book Amistad with her humanities teacher's help. "Latitia needed to understand it for an exhibition she was preparing about slavery," Chanon said. "I watched her teacher patiently go back and ask her again and again: ‘What is a detail that supports that main idea?' It takes really intensive coaching, but you can see Latitia turning from a passive reader–where we tell her what's important–into an active reader who can read, ask questions about its ideas, and support the answers on her own."
A Student Looks Back on His Reading Life
Now a freshman at City College in New York City, Jason was a senior at Fannie Lou Hamer Freedom High School in the Bronx when he wrote the following as part of a "reading autobiography" required for his graduation portfolio. "In class, he looked as if he were never paying attention," said Nancy Mann, Hamer's principal, but his reflection revealed that "he had developed an intellectual technique."
As I read the reading reflections of Malcolm X and Richard Rodriguez I notice that Richard Rodriguez and I have more in common in learning the English language and how we connected with our family. . . . While growing up we both were ashamed of our parents trying to talk English. But now that I look back at it I notice that I was foolish because my parents, with as little English as they know, managed to raise two kids and hold on to their jobs, just like Richard Rodriguez's family. While I was growing up Richard Rodriguez and I received the same responsibility: we both were sent to the store because we both were learning English and we could do stuff like communicating with the guy at the store. But the main problem that Richard Rodriguez and I both had was that it was hard to pick up the English language since in both of our families we were going back and forth from Spanish at home and English at school. This is a problem that a lot of Hispanic kids have while growing up.
While growing up reading was one of the hardest things for me to do since some of the words were hard for me to pronounce and this made it hard for me to understand the material that I was reading. . . . The only time that I used to read something on my own was when I would read the kind of stuff that would interest me like sports. . . . I already had a clue what the article [was] about, so sports articles became easy for me to read.
But as I was getting older and the reading material got harder for me to comprehend I began to daydream while we read in class all at the same time as a group. . . . I was in a large class and each student would only read one paragraph and never read again for that whole class. . . . By the time it was my turn the article would have been read already. So then I would lose interest and would begin to talk to a friend or start to stare out the window . . . I even tried to block out the noise from the other kids reading out loud and tried to do my own reading.
This led to the start of me learning to be an independent reader. I started to take the text books home and I started to read on my own. . . . I didn't want to be bothered while I was doing my reading. This made me become a better reader because I started sounding out the words on my own and this made me a faster reader because I didn't have to read at the same pace of the other kids. A problem that came out of my reading on my own was that I got so shy and this created a problem of not being able to read in public. I started to think in my mind that people will talk about my reading and also I started to think about how my voice sounded. But I began to expand the kind of reading that I normally would do. I started to read newspapers, I started to read the autobiographies of people that I found interesting and I started to read history books.
Now that I'm in high school I think that the reading material is way harder but it doesn't really bother me because most of the reading we do is on our own. And I'm already used to doing my own independent reading. And when we do group reading I'm more involved because our classes are smaller and there is more time per class and there is less noise in the classrooms and the kids now can read at a faster pace.
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Academic Literacy: Awareness, Skills, Content
What does a year-long "academic literacy" course look like? One example offered by the teachers involved with WestEd's Strategic Literacy Initiative uses three long units that build on each other, as follows:
From September through November, the class focuses on "reading self and society"–finding and exploring written materials that interest each reader while building and reflecting on new skills and strategies. For example, they might:
- Pick out a book for sustained silent reading, and keep a reading log reflecting on both its content and their process in reading it.
- Draft and revise a written reflection on themselves as readers.
For the next few months, students are "reading media"–learning to take apart and think through the rhetoric of a text, its symbolism, and its construction. For example, they might:
- Take a look at ambiguous newspaper headlines
(like "Kids Make Nutritious Snacks")
to understand a text's construction and effects.
- Analyze advertisements designed to target specific audiences, and produce their own examples.
In the last several months students move on to "reading history"–taking on the primary and secondary texts of a particular academic area, and using their new strategies to make sense of them. For example, they might:
- Build their background knowledge in history by tapping their own existing knowledge and experience and making connections to the topic of study.
- Familiarize students with what they might expect to find in the language of expository text in the field of history.
- Help students come to understand history as interpreting events, not just collecting facts about them.
For more information, consult Reading for Understanding: A Guide to Improving Reading in Middle and High School Classrooms, by Ruth Schoenbach, Cynthia Greenleaf, Christine Cziko, and Lori Hurwitz
(San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999).
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Helping Students Learn How Good Readers Approach a Text
How can you tell when someone is a good reader? What do teachers look for when they are trying to understand how well someone reads? Asking students this question helps begin to unpack and demystify the reading process, say researchers from the Strategic Literacy Initiative
(SLI) at WestEd, the federal regional educational laboratory in San Francisco.
Not everyone realizes how complex a task reading is, SLI director Cynthia Greenleaf asserts. Even master readers have grown so used to the processes they use with unfamiliar texts that they rarely notice what helps them through a successful reading. But once students have a clearer picture of both the demands of different texts and the strategies that good readers use, they can try out new approaches themselves, combining them flexibly to make better sense of what they read.
SLI researchers developed the following exercise as a way to get students to share and analyze their reading strategies. Start with moderately challenging texts, they suggest, and introduce more difficult texts as the group repeats the exercise on different days.
Analyzing the Reading Process
1. Before reading, ask students what good readers do when they read. (Other prompts: "How can you tell when someone is a good reader? What do you think teachers look for when they are trying to understand how well someone reads?")
2. Record all answers for the group to see, under the title "Good Readers' Strategies." Whether the answers support your notion of reading or not, they will help construct a sense of what the students' beliefs about reading are. Later conversations will revise and elaborate on this initial list.
3. Give out a piece of text to be read. Ask students to read as they normally would, noting that discussion will follow about how they read. While they read, also read the text yourself.
4. After they read, ask students to write brief answers to prompts such as: What did you notice? What was hard? What did you do to make sense of the text as you read? (Again, you should write your own answers.)
5. Ask students to share their answers, making sure to validate the many different kinds of thinking that led to the successful completion of the reading task. If necessary, get them started by sharing one or two of your own answers. Prompt students with questions such as: "Did anyone notice that they had to re-read any part?" or "Did anyone think of something else that they knew about that was kind of related?"
6. Record people's observations for all to see, pointing out and labeling various comprehension strategies so the class may begin to build a common vocabulary about reading process.
7. As students share their strategies, revisit the items on the list they made at the start of the session. Based on this last reading experience, do they want to add or revise anything? For example, many initial lists include the comment, "Good readers read fast." If students say that they had to slow down because the text was confusing, a revised list might read, "Good readers sometimes read fast, but they know to slow down when they need to."
Some Ways Good Readers Solve Problems
Even students who do not see themselves as readers can begin to see that the comprehension challenges they face are common to all readers–and that they, too, read strategically. With your group, create a "problem solving" list of such challenges, with various strategies to get through them. For example, if a student has a problem with vocabulary, ask, "What kinds of things do people do when they come to new words?" Help generate a list of strategies for dealing with this problem, such as:
- Read ahead.
- Read the sentence before the word.
- Substitute a word you know that sounds right and
- makes sense.
- Look for parts of the word
(roots) that are used in other
- words that you know.
- Write the word down and go on.
- Look it up or ask someone.
Other common problems include distractions that make it hard to focus one's attention; disagreeing with the author; being nervous (about reading aloud or reading for a test); reading about something one doesn't know much about, or not knowing or caring about the purpose of reading a text.
Some Strategies Good Readers Use
- Good readers read fast, and change the speed of their reading depending on how difficult the text is.
- Good readers re-read.
- Good readers ask questions.
- Good readers have a reason to read–they set a purpose.
- Good readers think about what they know already that is related to what they are reading, using their background knowledge about the topic, genre, era, author, and so forth.
- Good readers make personal connections, saying, "This reminds me of . . ."
- Good readers visualize, trying to picture what the author is saying.
Edited somewhat for length, this material comes from the Strategic Literacy Initiative website , which also offers more help to content-area teachers concerned with improving students' literacy skills. For information, visit www.wested.org/stratlit or call 415-565-3026.
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The Arts As a Natural Partner to Literacy
"The more you empower kids, the more they can do," said one Providence actor after working with Rhode Island public school students in the Arts/ Literacy Project, based at Brown University's education department. The following factors are fundamental to the approach, which links local artists with classroom teachers and students to create performances and boost literacy:
Literacy and Performance Objectives. All the work of the performance unit–writing, reading, theater activities, rehearsals, and performance–aim toward specific and clearly stated literacy and performance objectives
(such as those of New Standards and the National Standards for Arts Education).
Culminating Performance. All Arts/Literacy units culminate in a student performance in front of an audience including at least students and teachers.
Return to Text. At various points during the unit, Arts/Literacy classrooms return to the original text to deepen student comprehension or writing development and to evaluate literacy learning.
Teachers and Artists as Collaborators. The teaching team of teacher and artist co-plan and co-teach the unit, actively facilitating daily classroom activities.
Students as Artists. Performances draw on students' skills, knowledge, and culture in a student-centered environment where the students become actors, writers, and directors.
Experience Live Theater. Visiting professional theater performances inspires the students to set a high standard for their own performances. It also creates a common theater language and experience for the teacher, artist, and student, providing a glimpse into the vocation and culture of the professional artist.
Reflective Practice. Teachers, artists, and students reflect on their own teaching and learning on both a daily and a unit level and discuss ways to improve their work.
For more information, contact the Arts/Literacy Project at (401)
863-7785 or on the Web at www.artslit.org.
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Reciprocal Teaching: Helping Students Understand What They Read
Many Essential school secondary teachers have found help for struggling readers in the activity called "reciprocal teaching." Aimed specifically at improving comprehension in the subject areas, this strategy has teachers and students enter into a dialogue in which they summarize, generate questions, clarify, and predict various things about a segment of text. Teacher and students take turns leading the dialogue, in a group effort to bring meaning to the text.
Summarizing asks the group to identify and integrate the most important information in the text–across sentences, across paragraphs, or across the passage as a whole.
Question generating carries the learner one more step along. Students first identify what information might prompt a question, then pose this information in question form and make sure they can answer it. Questions can arise at many levels: students might ask questions about supporting details, for instance, or they might practice inferring or applying new information from a text.
Examples of question generating:
I wonder why . . . ?
Does this mean . . . ?
What about . . . ?
Clarifying is particularly important for students who typically have difficulty with comprehension. These students may believe that the purpose of reading is saying the words correctly; they may not be particularly uncomfortable that the words, and in fact the passage, do not make sense to them Asking them to clarify helps them notice that text is difficult to understand for many reasons–new vocabulary, unclear reference words, unfamiliar and perhaps difficult concepts. Then they can re-read, ask for help, or take other measures to restore meaning.
Examples of clarifying:
Maybe it's trying to say that . . .
The author is trying to make us see that . . .
Predicting occurs when students hypothesize what the author will discuss next in the text, calling on the background knowledge they already possess about the topic. This gives them a purpose for reading–to confirm or disprove their hypotheses–and they can also connect new knowledge from the text with what they already know. The predicting strategy also helps students learn that headings, subheadings, and questions in the text are useful means of anticipating what might occur next.
Examples of predicting:
This might be about . . .
I think that what will happen is . . .
Examples of connecting:
This reminds me of . . .
I can relate to this because . . .
For more, see A.S. Palincsar's section on reciprocal teaching in Teaching Reading as Thinking (Oak Brook, IL: North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, 1986), or on the NCREL site at www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/atrisk/at6lk38.htm.
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Literacy Evolves in a Community of Practice
When student projects culminate with an artistic performance, says Brown education professor Eileen Landay, they set in motion a "community of practice" that opens students up to learning, as her diagram below shows. As they build skills in repeated rehearsals, she said, they regulate their own behavior; and the feedback they get has an obvious, logical purpose. "It creates a balance between product and process," Landay says, "between knowing and being able to do."
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Useful Readings and Resources on Adolescent Literacy
Jim Burke, Reading Reminders: Tools, Tips, and Techniques
(Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann—Boynton/Cook, 2000).
Emily Cousins, Amy Mednick, and Meg Campbell, Literacy All Day Long (Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, 2000).
M.E. Curtis and A.M. Longo. When Adolescents Can't Read: Methods and Materials that Work (Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books, 1999).
C. Cziko, "Reading Happens in Your Mind, Not Your Mouth," California English 3, no. 4 (summer 1998): 6-7.
P. Donahue, K. Voelkl, J. Campbell, and J. Mazzeo, NAEP 1998 Reading Report Card for the Nation and the States (Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, March 1999).
Patrick Finn, Literacy with an Attitude
(Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1999).
Shirley Brice Heath,Ways with Words (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1983).
Shirley Brice Heath
(ed.) and Leslie Mangiola, Children of Promise: Literate Activity in Linguistically Diverse Classrooms
(Washington, DC: National Education Association, 1991).
Ellin Oliver Keene and Susan Zimmerman, Mosaic of Thought: Teaching Comprehension in a Readers Workshop
(Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1997).
D. W. Moore, J. E. Readence, and R. J. Rickelman, Prereading Activities for Content Area Reading and Learning , second ed. (Newark, DE: International Reading Association, 1989).
D. G. O'Brien, R. A. Stewart, and E.B. Moje, "Why Content Literacy Is Difficult to Infuse into the Secondary School: Complexities of Curriculum, Pedagogy, and School Culture." Reading Research Quarterly 30, no. 3 (July-August-September 1995): 442-463.
A.S. Palincsar and Klenk, L.J., "Dialogues Promoting Reading Comprehension," in B. Means, C. Chelemer, and M. S. Knapp (eds.), Teaching Advanced Skills to At-Risk Students (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991).
Bruce Pirie, Reshaping High School English
(Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 1997).
Linda Rief,Vision and Voice: Extending the Literacy Spectrum
(Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1999).
Linda Rief, Seeking Diversity: Language Arts with Adolescents
(Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1992).
B. D. Roe, B. D. Stoodt, and P. C. Burns, Secondary School Reading Instruction: The Content Areas , sixth ed. (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1998).
Ruth Schoenbach, Cynthia Greenleaf, Christine Cziko, and Lori Hurwitz, Reading for Understanding: A Guide to Improving Reading in Middle and High School Classrooms
(San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999).
Denny Taylor and Catherine Dorsey-Gaines (contributor), Growing Up Literate: Learning from Inner-City Families.
R.T. Vacca, "Let's Not Marginalize Adolescent Literacy" in Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy 41, no. 8 (May 1998): 604-609.
Resources
Boys Town Reading Center, Father Flanagan's Boys' Home, Boys Town, Nebraska 68010; 402-498-1155.
Strategic Literacy Initiative, WestEd, 730 Harrison Street, San Francisco, CA 94107; 415-565-3000.
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Code: H17:2
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This resource last updated: June 07, 2002
Database Information:
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Source: Horace. Vol. 17, #2. March 2001.
Publication Year: 2001
Publisher: CES National
Type: Horace Feature
School Level: All
Issue: 17.2
Focus Area: Classroom Practice
STRAND: Classroom Practice: curriculum
Curriculum: Projects & Units, Subject Integration
Instruction: Student-as-Worker
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